Terminology Tuesday: Paleopathology

PALEOPATHOLOGY The study of ancient suffering, disease, and cause of death. Offers additional information about the people who lived in the time of the Bible.

The Science of Paleopathology examines human and animal remains in order to understand suffering, disease, and causes of death. It also seeks to learn about the lives of ancient people through understanding ancient nutrition, physical activity, agriculture, and ancient medical procedures. Paleopathology is a broad, interdisciplinary field composed of archaeology, medicine, science, history, dentistry, anthropology, epidemiology, and others.
Paleopathology developed as a scientific discipline after the 18th and 19th centuries. The growth of archaeology, which unearthed mummies and human remains, was the impetus for the rise of paleopathology. It grew into a distinct scientific discipline in the 20th century. Since paleopathologists rely almost solely upon the examination of bones for the resultant effects of disease or trauma, the establishment of skeletal collections at various museums became a key element in the growth of the discipline. The last half of the 20th century was a time of great advancement in paleopathology. The corpus of paleopathological books and articles dramatically increased during that span. In 1973, The Paleopathology Association was organized—a group with a diverse, international membership of professionals and students. The association produces a newsletter for its members and in March 2010, published its inaugural volume of The International Journal of Paleopathology.
Dry bones offer only limited potential for paleopathological study. As many pathological conditions affect the human skeleton in similar ways, clinical differentiation between causes is often difficult. For example, mutilating skeletal changes due to atrophy are a primary determinant of leprosy, especially in the face and skull. But, those same changes are seen in arthritis as well. Modern medical advances have assisted in making more accurate determinations. As medical diagnostics have improved, so have the diagnostic capabilities of paleopathologists. Better techniques in visual observation, historical examination, X-rays, CT scans, bacterial DNA, and genetics improve the accuracy of paleopathological conclusions.
With the expansion of archaeology in Israel and biblical lands since Petrie and Albright in the early 20th century, the opportunity for paleopathology to influence the understanding of the Bible has also expanded.
Disease in the Bible Infectious diseases grew with the rise of population centers. As humans settled into towns and cities, the spread of infectious diseases grew. Water contamination from human waste and the close proximity to domesticated animals were the two primary sources for the spread of disease and infection. Diseases such as tuberculosis, leishmaniasis (skin ulcers caused by sand flies), and brucellosis (recurrent bacterial fever) were the first diseases transmitted from domesticated animals. Viruses and worms are associated with contaminated water.
The Bible records examples of diseases and illness. It includes cases of (Matthew and Pandian, “Newer Insights”):
  •      Leprosy (Naaman)  •      Parasites (lice)  •      Acromegaly or gigantism (Goliath)  •      Stroke (Nabal and Ezekiel)  •      Diabetes (Isaac)  •      Sciatica (Jacob)  •      Hemorrhage (child of Shunnamite Woman)  •      Possibly autism (Samson)
Leprosy
While many infectious diseases leave no indelible effect on skeletal remains, diseases such as tuberculosis and leprosy appear in the skeletal record as bony lesions, atrophy, and deformation.Paleopathologists have diagnosed leprosy in remains from various archaeological periods of the Bible. Leprosy has disastrous effects on the human skeleton due to atrophy of the bones especially in the face and extremities. The leprosy described in the book of Leviticus seems to have been a different skin disease (Lev 13–14). People in the Bible diagnosed with biblical leprosy include:
  •      Miriam (Num 12)  •      Naaman (2 Kgs 5)  •      King Uzziah (2 Chr 26)  •      A man healed by Jesus (Matt 8)
Tuberculosis
Associated with the domestication of cattle, tuberculosis has often been thought to have spread from cattle to humans. In the Bible lands, cattle may have been domesticated since the Neolithic period. The increased use of cow’s milk and the eating of beef “may have ushered in a new form of tuberculosis that infected humans for the first time (Zias, “Death and Disease”). Recent DNA testing has given cause to question the link between “Mycobacterium bovis” (tuberculosis of bovine origin) and human tuberculosis (Mycobacterium tuberculosis). Samples of human bones taken from Karkur, Vered-Jericho, and Qasr el-Yehud determined the tuberculosis was not of bovine origin. Samples from the Neolithic and Byzantine periods generally support “the concept that [tuberculosis] evolved separately in man and beast (Faerman, “Molecular Archaeology”).”
Lice
Lice are probably the most well-known parasites from the biblical time. The most significant record of lice comes from the plague of lice in Egypt. In Exodus 8:16–18, Yahweh commands Moses to strike the dust with his rod so that lice will come upon every person and beast. Studies have shown that lice also infested the ancient population of Israel. An examination of hair combs from Qumran, Masada, Murabbaat, and the Negev revealed that “50 percent of the artifacts examined microscopically were infected with lice and lice eggs (Zias, “Death and Disease”).”
Mechanic Damage
Mechanic injuries are commonly attested in human remains. Hazardous conditions surrounding ancient humankind led to increased mechanical damage. Skeletal injuries from swords, knives, axes, and tools are common. Though crucifixion was common, very little skeletal evidence exists.
Surgical Procedures
Primitive surgical procedures are also well attested in the human archaeological record. Cranial surgery is the most well attested type of ancient surgery. It was probably an effort to relieve swelling caused by a brain injury. The survival rate for patients of ancient cranial surgery was surprisingly high (Zias, “Death and Disease”).
Status of Paleopathology in Israel
Ultra-Orthodox Jews often oppose the disturbance of human remains, even for scientific examination. Since the mid-1990s, the increased political power of the ultra-Orthodox community in Israel has caused consternation among the archaeological community concerning the future of archaeological excavation, particularly paleopathology.

Roden, C. (2016). Paleopathology. In J. D. Barry, D. Bomar, D. R. Brown, R. Klippenstein, D. Mangum, C. Sinclair Wolcott, … W. Widder (Eds.), The Lexham Bible Dictionary. Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press.